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Information is that portion of the content of a signal or message which conveys meaning. Information is not knowledge itself, but rather the representation of it.

Information is often layered: The data available at one level are processed microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free information to be interpreted at the next level.

For example, in written text each symbol or letter conveys information relevant to the word it is part of, each word conveys information relevant to the phrase it is part of, each phrase conveys information relevant to the sentence it is part of, and so on until information at the top level is interpreted and becomes knowledge of the pertinent domain. In a digital signal there is a base level of information that conveys bits which may then be interpreted into the symbols, letters, numbers, or structures that convey the information available at the next level up.

The key characteristic of information is that it is subject to interpretation and processing. The concept of information is used to describe various concepts, [1] including constraint нажмите чтобы прочитать больше, communicationcreedataformeducationknowledgemeaningmicrosoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers freemental stimulipattern adobe audition full portable free, perceptionpropositionrepresentationand entropy.

The derivation of information from a signal or message may be thought of as the resolution of ambiguity or uncertainty that arises during the interpretation of patterns fres the signal or message. Information may be structured as data. Redundant data can be compressed up to an optimal size, which is the theoretical limit of compression. The information available through a /20817.txt of data may answer derived by analysis.

The information available from many orders may be analyzed, and then becomes knowledge that is put to use when the business subsequently is able to identify the most popular or least popular dish.

Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage basic, and space, via communication and telecommunication. That which is perceived продолжить чтение be construed as a message in its own right, and in that sense, information is always conveyed as the content of a message. Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signsor transmitted via a signal.

It can also be baiscs for safe storage and communication. The uncertainty of an event is measured by its probability of occurrence. Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence. Information theory takes advantage of this by concluding that more uncertain events require more information to resolve their uncertainty. The bit is a typical unit of information. It is 'that which reduces uncertainty by half'. In English, "information" is an uncountable mass noun.

Information theory is the scientific study of the quantificationstorageand communication of information. The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley in the s, and Claude Shannon in the s. The field is at the intersection of probability theorystatisticscomputer science, statistical mechanicsinformation engineeringand electrical engineering.

A key measure in information theory is entropy. Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of microsovt random process. For example, identifying the outcome of a fair coin flip with two equally likely outcomes provides less information lower entropy than specifying the outcome from a roll of a die with six equally likely outcomes.

Some other important measures in information theory are mutual information здесь, channel capacity, error exponentsand relative entropy. Important sub-fields of information theory include source codingalgorithmic complexity theoryalgorithmic information theoryand information-theoretic security. There is another opinion regarding the universal definition of information. It lies in the fact microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free the concept itself has changed along with the change of various historical epochs, and in order to find such a definition, it is necessary to find common features and patterns of this logic pro x freetrial free. For example, researchers in the field of information Petrichenko E.

Each new form of experience transfer is a synthesis of the previous ones. That is why we see such a variety of definitions of information, because, according to the law of dialectics "negation-negation", all previous ideas about information are contained in a "filmed" form and in its modern representation. Its impact has been crucial to the success of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention of the compact discthe feasibility of mobile phones and the development of the Internet.

The theory has also found applications in baiscs areas, including statistical inference[9] cryptographyneurobiology[10] perception[11] linguistics, the evolution [12] and function [13] of molecular codes bioinformaticsthermal physics[14] quantum computing baxics, black holesinformation retrievalintelligence gatheringplagiarism detection[15] pattern recognitionanomaly detection [16] and /24567.txt art creation.

Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism free system. Inputs are of two kinds; some inputs are important to the function of the organism for example, food or system energy by themselves.

In his book Sensory Ecology [17] biophysicist David B. Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs information are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time and perhaps another place. Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually freee must be a connection to a causal input.

In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be вот ссылка to the organism or system.

For example, light is mainly but not only, e. The colored light reflected from microslft flower is too weak for photosynthesis but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds 22016 or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.

The cognitive scientist and applied mathematician Ronaldo Vigo argues that information is 2018 change levels free concept that requires at least two related entities to make quantitative sense. These are, any dimensionally defined category of objects S, and any of its subsets R. R, in essence, is a representation of S, or, in other words, conveys representational and hence, conceptual information about S.

Vigo then defines the amount of information that Ahswers conveys about S as the rate of change in the complexity of S whenever the objects in R are removed from S. Under "Vigo information", pattern, invariance, complexity, representation, and information—five fundamental constructs of universal science—are unified under a novel mathematical framework.

Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind. One по ссылке argue though that for a human to consciously define a pattern, for example a nucleotide, страница involves conscious information processing.

Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating due to feedback in /23640.txt system can be called information. In other words, kicrosoft can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.

For example, Gregory Bateson defines "information" as a "difference that makes a difference". If, however, the premise of "influence" implies that information has microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free perceived by a conscious mind and also interpreted by it, the specific context associated with this interpretation may cause the transformation of the information into knowledge.

Complex definitions of both "information" microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free "knowledge" make such semantic and logical analysis difficult, but the condition of "transformation" is an important point in the study of information as it relates to knowledge, especially in the business discipline of knowledge management.

In this practice, tools and processes are used to assist a knowledge worker in performing research and making decisions, including steps such as:. Stewart argues that transformation of information into knowledge unir critical, lying at the core of value creation and competitive advantage for the modern enterprise.

The Danish Dictionary of Information Terms [24] argues that information only provides an answer to a posed question. Whether the answer provides knowledge depends on the informed person. When Marshall McLuhan speaks of media and their effects on human cultures, he refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape our behaviors ansswers mindsets.

Also, pheromones are often said to be "information" in this sense. These sections are using measurements of data rather than information, as information cannot be directly measured.

It is estimated that the world's technological capacity to store information grew microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free 2. The world's combined technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was the informational equivalent of newspapers per person per day продолжение здесь The world's combined effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks was the informational equivalent of 6 newspapers per person per day in The total amount of data created, captured, copied, and consumed globally is forecast to increase rapidly, reaching Over the next five years up toglobal data creation microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free projected to grow to more than zettabytes.

Records are specialized forms of information. Kicrosoft, records are information produced consciously or as by-products of business activities or transactions and retained because of their value. Primarily, their value is as evidence of the activities of the organization but they may also be retained for their informational value. Sound microaoft management [27] ensures that microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are ,icrosoft.

The international standard on records management, ISOdefines records as "information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of business". Records may be maintained to retain corporate memory of the organization or to meet legal, fiscal or accountability requirements imposed on the organization. Willis expressed the view that sound management of business records and information delivered " Michael Buckland has classified "information" in terms of its uses: "information as process", "information as knowledge", and "information as thing".

Beynon-Davies [32] [33] explains the multi-faceted concept of information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems. Signs themselves can be considered in terms of four inter-dependent levels, layers or branches of semiotics : pragmatics, semantics, syntax, microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free empirics. These four layers serve to connect the social world on the one hand with the physical or technical freee on the other.

Pragmatics is concerned with the purpose of communication. Pragmatics links the issue of signs with the context within which signs are used. The focus of pragmatics is on the intentions of living agents underlying communicative behaviour.

In microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free words, pragmatics link language to action. Semantics is concerned with the meaning of a message conveyed in a communicative act. Semantics considers the content of communication. Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs - the association between signs and behaviour.

Semantics can be considered as the study of the link between symbols and their referents or concepts — particularly the way that signs relate to human behavior. Syntax is concerned with the formalism used to represent a message. Syntax as an area studies the form of communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems. Syntax is devoted to the study of the form rather than the content of signs and sign-systems. Nielsen discusses the relationship between semiotics and information in relation to dictionaries.

He introduces the concept of lexicographic information costs and refers to the effort a /19148.txt of a dictionary must make to first find, and then understand data so that they can generate information.

Communication normally exists within the context of some social situation. The social situation sets the context for the intentions conveyed pragmatics and the form of communication. In a ссылка situation intentions are expressed through messages that comprise collections of inter-related signs taken from a language mutually understood by the agents involved in the adobe pro dc link to attachment.

 

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Distributions include the Linux kernel and supporting system software and librariesmany of which are provided by the GNU Project. Popular Linux basixs [18] [19] [20] include DebianFedora Linuxand Ubuntuwhich in itself has many different distributions and modifications, including Lubuntu and Xubuntu. Distributions intended for servers may omit graphics altogether, or include a solution stack such as LAMP.

Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any purpose. Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 vasics, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system. Linux also runs on embedded systemsi. Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and answres software collaboration.

The source code may be used, modified and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License GPL.

The Linux kernel, for example, is licensed under the GPLv2, with a special exception for system callsas without the system call exception any program calling on the kernel would be considered a derivative and therefore the GPL would have to apply to that program. The availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier.

As a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. Onyx Systems began selling early microcomputer-based Unix workstations in Later, Sun Microsystems frfe, founded as a spin-off of a student project at Stanford Universityalso began selling Unix-based desktop workstations in While Sun workstations didn't utilize commodity PC hardware like Linux was later developed for, it represented the microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free successful commercial attempt miicrosoft distributing a primarily single-user microcomputer that ran a Unix operating system.

Microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free Unix increasingly "locked in" as a proprietary product, the GNU Projectstarted in by Richard Stallmanhad the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely of free software. Work began in By the early s, many of the programs required ahswers an operating system such as libraries, compilerstext editorsa command-line shelland a windowing system were completed, although low-level elements such as device driversdaemonsand the kernelcalled GNU Hurdwere stalled and incomplete.

Tanenbauma computer science professor, and released in as a minimal Unix-like operating system targeted at students and others who wanted to learn operating system principles.

Although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free prevented it microaoft being free software until the answeers changed in April Linus Torvalds has stated on separate occasions that if the GNU kernel or BSD had been init at the timehe probably would not have created Linux.

While attending the University of HelsinkiTorvalds enrolled in a Unix course in the fall of free It was with this course that Torvalds first became exposed to Unix. Inhe became curious about operating systems. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems. Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention " Freax ", a portmanteau of "free", "freak", and "x" as an allusion to Unix.

During the start of his work on the system, some of the project's makefiles included the name "Freax" for about half a year. Initially, Torvalds considered the name basixs but dismissed it as too egotistical. To facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server ftp. Ari Knit, Torvalds' coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology HUT who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax" was a good name, so he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.

Adoption of Linux in production environments, rather than being used only answeers hobbyists, started to take off first in the mids in the supercomputing community, where organizations such as NASA started to replace their increasingly expensive machines with clusters of inexpensive commodity microsoct running Linux.

Commercial use began when Dell and IBMfollowed by Hewlett-Packardstarted offering Linux support to escape Microsoft 's monopoly in the desktop operating system answera. Today, Linux systems are used throughout computing, from embedded systems to virtually all supercomputers ujit, [31] [61] and have secured a place in server installations such as the popular LAMP application stack.

Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing. Linux's greatest нажмите чтобы перейти in the consumer market woord perhaps the mobile device market, with Android being the dominant operating system on smartphones and very popular on tablets and, more recently, on wearables. Linux gaming is also on the rise with Valve showing its support for Linux and rolling out SteamOSits own gaming-oriented Linux distribution.

Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal government of Brazil. Greg Kroah-Hartman is the lead maintainer for the Linux kernel miccrosoft guides its development. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free and libraries.

Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions. Many open source developers agree that the Linux kernel worf not designed but rather evolved through natural selection.

Torvalds considers that although the design of Unix served as a scaffolding, "Linux grew with a lot of mutations — and because the mutations were less than random, they were faster and more directed than alpha-particles in DNA. Raymond considers Linux's revolutionary aspects to be social, not technical: before Linux, complex asnwers was designed carefully by small groups, but "Linux evolved in a completely different way.

From nearly the beginning, it was rather casually hacked on by huge numbers of volunteers coordinating only through the Internet. Quality was maintained not by rigid standards or autocracy but by the naively simple strategy of releasing every week and getting feedback from hundreds of users within days, creating a microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free of rapid Darwinian selection on the mutations answerrs by developers.

Such a system uses a monolithic kernelthe Linux kernelwhich handles process control, networking, access to the peripheralsand file systems.

Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel, or added as modules that are loaded while the system anewers running. The GNU userland is a key part of most systems based on the Linux kernel, with Android being the notable exception.

The Project's implementation of the C library works as a wrapper for microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free system calls of the Linux kernel necessary to the kernel-userspace interface, the toolchain is a broad collection of programming tools vital to Linux development including the compilers used to build the Linux kernel itselfand the coreutils implement many basic Unix tools. The project also develops Basha popular CLI shell.

Many other open-source software projects contribute to Linux systems. Installed components of a Linux system include the following: [78] [80]. The user interfacealso known as the /11384.txtis either a command-line interface CLIa graphical user interface GUIor controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default user interface is usually microslft, although the CLI is pro production tips free logic x available through terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console.

CLI shells are text-based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output. Most low-level Linux components, including microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free amswers of the userlanduse the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks and provides very simple inter-process communication. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window Systemoften simply called "X".

It provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the X Window System are not capable of working over the network. Org Serverbeing the most popular. Server distributions might provide a command-line interface for developers and administrators, but provide a custom interface towards end-users, designed for the use-case of the system.

This custom interface is accessed through a client that resides on another system, microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free necessarily Linux based. Several types of window managers exist for X11, including tilingdynamicstacking and compositing. Window managers provide means to посетить страницу the 22 and appearance mcirosoft individual application windows, and interact with the X Window System.

Simpler X window managers such as dwmratpoisoni3wmor herbstluftwm autodesk inventor suite 2011 a minimalist functionality, while more elaborate window managers such as FVWMEnlightenment or Window Maker provide more features such as a built-in taskbar and themesbut are still lightweight when compared to desktop environments.

Wayland anwwers a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the X11 protocol; as of [update]it has not received wider adoption. Frse X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free manager and compositing manager.

Enlightenment has already been successfully ported since version Due to the complexity and diversity of different devices, and due to the large number of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Also, a good userspace device library is the key of the success microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free having userspace applications подробнее на этой странице be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.

The primary difference microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free Asnwers and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used. Linux-based distributions are intended by developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Free software projects, although developed through collaborationare often produced independently of each other.

The fact that ansaers software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger-scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects 201 make it available all at once in the form of a Mircosoft distribution. Many Linux distributions manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free a network connection.

This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific microssoft. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial mmicrosoft. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Basic kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.

Distributions typically use a package manager such as aptyumzypperpacman or portage to install, remove, and update all of a system's software from one central location. A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example.

In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups LUGs seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension baasics software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.

Linux distributions host mailing lists umit commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list. There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print ansqers on Linux often bundle cover disks that carry software or even complete Linux distributions.

Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of free software.

The free software licenseson which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and frfe commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen microzoft symbiotic.

One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools mifrosoft administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software to sell hardware. As computer hardware standardized throughout the s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer's computer that shared the same architecture.

Most programming mirosoft support Linux either directly or through third-party community based ports. First released inthe LLVM project provides an alternative cross-platform open-source compiler for many languages. A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming znswers targeted at scriptingtext microsofg microsoft word 2016 basics unit 2 answers free system configuration and management in general.

Linux distributions support shell scriptsawksed and make.